E-learners’ Experiences of Time

 

Barbara Allan

University of Hull Business School

 Barbara.Allan@hull.ac.uk

 

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the experiences of e-learners participating in continuing professional development programmes in three UK universities. Data was collected using questionnaires, discussion group postings and informal telephone interviews.  These were analysed using two approaches to content analysis: a coding scheme and metaphors. Findings indicated that:  e-learners reconstruct their approaches to time management at an early stage in their programme; the e-learners developed different time management strategies (planned, opportunistic, planned/opportunistic); and metaphors illustrated their underlying experiences of time. These provide the basis of recommendations for e-tutors. Finally, the paper explores methodological issues and outlines some implications for practice.

 

Keywords

E-learners, time, metaphor, research methodologies, content analysis.

 

INTRODUCTION

E-learning is an important mode of delivery in higher education and an often stated advantage is that it offers ‘any place, any time’ learning opportunities. For many people it does offer new ways of learning, access to a wide variety of courses, and an opportunity to access a global virtual learning community  - all this from their desktop. However, for some people it may bring an additional burden to an already heavily pressurized workload and life style.  The starting point for the research was the author’s observation that ‘time’ was frequently an obstacle for e-learners who, in addition to their e-learning programmes, were also leading busy professional lives and managing a life/work balance. This observation was backed up by the work of other researchers e.g. Schrum and Hong (2002), Meyer (2003).

The literature on cooperative and collaborative learning in networked communities reflects the strong influence of socially-oriented theories of learning including constructivism and situated cognition (McConnell 2000).  There is a growing literature base on the learner’s experiences in networked communities e.g. with respect to their relationships with each other  (de Laat 2002, McConnell 2000), relationships between learners and tutors (Lally 2002, Allan et al 2002) and the development of self-directed learners (Crosta 2002).  Working within this context the current study explores one aspect of the learner’s experience i.e. time and the development of individual approaches to managing their time for their networked learning activities. 

 

Time and time management

Adam (1995) provides an overview of time as a social construct and identifies different ways of perceiving time: ‘clock’ time which is linear, sequential and scheduled phenomena; time as an all-at-once event sometimes referred to as ‘living in the present;’ and also natural, biological or cyclical time.  Research on learner’s experiences and approaches to time provide a range of perspectives including positivist approaches based on learning styles theories e.g. work of Loomis (2000) and Smyth and Buckner (2001), and also feminist approaches e.g. Morrison (1996). Meyer (2003) explores the impact of time on classroom- based and online discussions and makes explicit the important connection between time and thinking, and the need for time and, in many situations, the passage of time to improve critical or higher level thinking. Finally she suggests that our educational institutions are reliant on traditional ‘clock’ notions of time as illustrated by timetables and time-based assessment activities. In contrast, constructivist approaches to learning often take place ‘over time’ in an asynchronous manner, they are often ‘messy’ and not bounded by traditional temporal boundaries.

E-learning programmes appear to require a different approach to time management than traditional programmes. In contrast to traditional programmes of study where students attend sessions at specific times participation in an e-learning programme is likely to involve logging into the virtual learning environment and communicating with peers and tutors perhaps several times a week. Wang, Kanfer & Hinn (2001) carried out a quantitative study based on 29 students’ experiences of an online summer school and their findings indicate that the shift from full time traditional learner to part time e-learner was accompanied with a change in their time management.  Salmon (2002) considers the issue of time to be ‘emotive and value-laden for both e-moderators and participants’. She discusses how the traditional advantage of anytime and anyplace learning in virtual environments means that time is not bounded and contained as it is when attending traditional lectures or seminars that have a clearly demarked start and end time. She suggests that e-learning has a reputation for ‘eating time.’

 

Time, LANGUAGE and metaphor

Language and time are inextricably linked.  Every time we describe an event or activity then it is structured by our culture’s understanding and language of time. It is difficult to think about time without using words and structures that are defined by particular perspectives of time. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) suggest that metaphor can be used as the basis for thinking about and understanding our lives and they say that “metaphor is one of the most important tools for trying to comprehend partially what cannot be comprehended totally.”  

Case and Gunstone (2001) explore how traditional full time undergraduate students talk about time and distinguish between those who have a perception of ‘high control’ and those with a perception of ‘low control’ over time. They use the work of Lakoff and Johnson (1980) as the basis for their analysis. Case and Gunstone found that students who talked about time as something they could control used expressions such as “spending time”, “saving time”, “wasting time” and “time management”. Students who had a perception of ‘low control’ over time used expressions such as “time not always on your side” and “time caught up with me”. Their work is of significance to the following study in two respects: it offers a methodology based on the use of metaphor; and it offers a framework for analysing data i.e. low and high control.

 

The context of the current study

This study focused on the experiences of 57 e-learners who participated in part-time e-learning programmes on the theme of networked learning delivered in three universities in the UK between November 2001 and July 2002.  Each of the programmes was designed to engage learners in a range of co-operative and collaborative activities working within a developing learning community. All the e-learners were people with professional qualifications in full time employment. The aim of this study was to explore e-learners’ experiences of time and it was based around the key question  ‘How do e-learners’ experience time with respect to their online activities? ‘  The study focused on the following themes: management of time with respect to e-learners’ online communications; use of discussion groups to explore time and time management by e-learners; use of ‘time’ metaphors by e-learners.

 

METHODOLOGY

General approach

This project took an interpretivist approach based on grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin 1998) and the author used both quantitative and qualitative data and evidence collection techniques including: questionnaires, analysis of student e-learning practice using VLE student tracking facilities and the analysis of narrative in discussion group messages; and interviews.  An initial pilot questionnaire was completed by 11 e-learners (N=16) and the findings from this were used to inform the design of the final questionnaire and also the coding scheme for the analysis of the discussion group messages.

 

Questionnaires

11 (N=16) pilot questionnaires were completed and these were analysed by identify and organising the data into themes. These themes were then used to develop a coding scheme.  The final questionnaire was completed by 14 e-learners (N-29). These were analysed to identify e-learners approaches to time management and quotations from them are used to illustrate individual experiences.

 

Online discussion group messages

1140 messages were compiled and downloaded as Word documents.  Two different approaches were used for content analysis of this message: coding of key words and phrases - based on the work of Case & Gunstone (2001) and also Lally & Delaat (2002); and metaphor analysis - based on the work of Case & Gunstone (2001) and Lakoff  (1980).

 

Use of a coding schema

The aim of the narrative analysis was to identify the content of e-learners messages with respect to time and to plot these over the life of the community. The coding strategy was inspired by the work of Lally and Delaat (2002).  An analysis of the pilot questionnaire and findings from the literature review were used to create 12 categories.  This schema  was used to analyse an initial 30 messages. It did not work as it was over-complex and it was difficult to match the codes with the content of the messages.

 

Table 1 Initial coding scheme

 

So the coding schema was simplified to two codes: reflection and management. In practice this simple scheme worked well and was used on the first eight threads of three groups of e-learners and a total of 1140 messages were analysed. Messages in which the content illustrated that the e-learner was exploring their approach to time and time management issues with respect to their online work were coded as ‘reflection’ and messages that indicated that the e-learner was planning their time e.g. arranging online meetings with their colleagues were coded as ‘management’. If both types of comment were made in one message then they were coded both ‘reflection’ and ‘management.’ The findings were then tabulated and plotted as shown in the next section.

 

Use of metaphor

One of the challenges in carrying out the current research was to identify and utilise metaphors as a way to ‘get under the surface’ and explore the learners’ subjective experiences with respect to time.  This involved a painstaking manual search through the 1140 messages and it resulted in the identification of 30 metaphors relating to time. These metaphors were grouped according to their underlying themes identified from the pilot questionnaires and literature (see next section).

 

 

Findings and discussion

 

E-learners’ experiences of time

The analysis of the questionnaires identified three distinct approaches to time management i.e. planned, opportunistic or mixed i.e. a combination of planned and opportunistic. Some e-learners commented that they scheduled their sessions and mentioned the use of time management tools such as diaries, setting aside a specific time each day e.g. first half hour at work, lists; others said that they didn’t schedule their time but fitted it in and around other activities. A number of people commented on their strategies for managing their online work:

“I think about it on three levels – one, where I can fit day-to-day communication in, two, when in the week I am most likely to get reading done (I aim for three slots or so, usually, at least one is during the week-end), three, I look at the deadlines and work out in what chunks to complete the work.”

“Because of the nature of my job, rather than any other aspect of my life, I find it difficult to set aside specific parts of any week to work specifically on the [e-learning programme]. What I do therefore is ALWAYS work at least 12 hours on the course in any week, at times to fit in with my other commitments. I keep a rough log of what I do each week and the actual hours spent on the [e-learning programme], although I probably spend more time than I actually record. “

The analysis indicated that the concept of planned and opportunistic approaches to e-learning clearly resonated with the e-learners’ experiences and many individuals commented on the value of discussing e-learning and time. 

 

Patterns in postings

The first analysis involved identifying the relationship between total postings and those that were concerned with issues of time – either reflection or management of time.  The graph illustrates that there was a rise in the number of postings that contained reflections on time soon after the start of the e-learning programme.  At its peak approximately 17% of postings were concerned with the learners’ issues about time for their online activities. The graph presented below is a composite of the findings from the three cohorts of e-learners (each based in a different university) and when this data is separated out by cohort then the same pattern is revealed in each group i.e. a rise in the number of postings that contained reflections on time soon after the start of the e-learning programme followed by a fall in this type of posting as the programme progresses. 

Figure 1 Online postings containing references to time.

 

The topic of time and time management arose spontaneously in the online discussion threads and  the number of postings in which the e-learners reflected on time reached its highest level early in the programme (Threads 2 or 3). This appeared to be linked to individuals need to sort out the tensions associated with managing their time for their e-learning programme. This is reflected in the following comments:

“Initially I felt as if I need to be online all the time and felt overwhelmed. The course ‘took over’ my life. I now keep an eye on how much I am on-line and limit my access. Basically I limit my own time on-line and fit it in and around other priorities.”

“I did find it hard to adjust to the medium at first and felt it was part of my own learning process to know how to handle it. ….  it is necessary to establish some sort of rhythm, because the prospect of coping with a backlog of messages after an absence is daunting, and it is very easy to feel left out of an established discussion.”

“I found the first few weeks very confusing. I was lost and didn’t know how to fit it in with work and home. I seemed to spend ages online but missed key postings. I printed everything off and that just made things worse. I now am very disciplined and go online 3 times a week. I only print off key messages. If I have spare time then I choose whether or not to go online. I’m now in the driving seat.”

“I have actually changed my style of learning since undertaking for the first time this e-learning course. Previously I have always had periods of planned learning e.g. devoting every Sunday. I do work better under pressure and can deliver high quality work if I have a deadline. I normally work out how much time I have and allocate days or ½ days for study during that time and stick to it whatever!!! (very sad I know!). But now I dip in and out of learning (Blackboard) frequently and if I have a spare ½ hour I will dip in or write up my reflective diary. It almost feels like a challenge to keep ‘on top’ of my learning. This begs the question why have I changed my style of learning? Any answers out there?”

The analysis of postings indicated that there was a continuous level of activity related to management e.g. planning and making arrangements for face-to-face or online conferences, and these were very neutral in tone. This aspect of time management didn’t appear to cause any problems or issues with these particular  e-learners.

 

Use of metaphors

In the context of this study the use of metaphors produced limited but useful findings that give an insight into the students’ experiences. Only 30 metaphors were found in 1140 postings i.e. less than 3% of the postings contained ‘time’ metaphors. The time metaphors used by the e-learners could be grouped into the categories listed in the following table.

Table 2   Classification of metaphors used by e-learners

 

 

The use of these metaphors indicates that the e-learners experienced a wide range of time challenges throughout their programme.  The metaphors indicate that the e-learners took a traditional ‘clock’ approach to time and their experiences of time were similar to traditional time management perspectives. Only two examples were found where the e-learners used metaphor to describe the conflict between natural study patterns and external factors. These students raised the issue of their natural study patterns and their inability to follow these due to external constraints. This study indicated the complexity of e-learner’s lives as they are negotiating and balancing different demands and pressures.

The study indicated that e-learners experienced different experiences of time at the start of course as compared with when they become more established as e-learners.  At initial stages a number of respondents appeared to have ‘low control’ over their time and this changed so that they appeared to move to ‘high control’. This suggests that they develop an appropriate time management strategy at these early stages. Many of their postings indicate that they are working towards managing their time and that it was an issue for them. This is in broad agreement of the findings of  Case and Gunstone (2001).

Overall the findings indicate that the e-learners were working from a traditional ‘clock’ approach relates to their context. Each of the e-learning programmes was hosted by universities that, like all traditional educational institutions, take a traditional ‘clock’ approach to time. Many of the participants were in employment in occupations such as lecturing and librarianship that are structured through the use of timetables and rotas. It is not surprising that these learners use metaphors based on a clock approach to time to describe and discuss their e-learning experiences.

 

Comments on the methodology

The two approaches to content analysis provided contrasting and complimentary results. The initial coding scheme was over-complex and once simplified the use of two criteria (reflection and management) was sufficient to identify clear patterns of discussion topics as demonstrated by the graph. The use of a simple coding scheme combined with a time-line illustrated that the e-learners focus on time varied at different times in their programme. However this technique doesn’t indicate e-learners’ experiences not represented in the messages e.g. individuals who didn’t have time to reflect on time in the discussion groups.  In addition it doesn’t illustrate the dynamics of the participants and the impact that this has on content.  While the use of a coding scheme for content analysis provides a potentially simplistic view of the e-learners’ experiences the identification and analysis of metaphors was useful as it provided an insight into their underlying orientation or perceptions about time. However, the identification and analysis of metaphors was very time consuming as less than 3% of the posting contained ‘time’ metaphors.

The analysis of the discussion group messages using the coding scheme and metaphor was time-consuming and it involved extensive and detailed searching through the messages. This is in contrast to the findings from the questionnaires which provided a rich source of material that helped to illustrate these learners’ experiences. Although the discussion group messages provided an insight into the e-learners’ experiences as they were participating in the life of their community the questionnaires provided information focused around specific topics e.g. different approaches to time management.  However, the findings from the questionnaires only reflect the experiences of the respondents who completed the questionnaires and the non-respondents’ perspectives, which may be particularly valuable due to the nature of the research topic, is obviously not available.  The researcher did not attempt to identify whether or not individuals who completed the questionnaires also took part in the reflections on time that took part in the discussion groups.

 

implications for practice

The issue of time was discussed in each of the e-learning programmes as individuals reflected on their current experiences and attempted to make sense of them. Some e-learners used metaphors that indicated they were attempting to gain control over their time and that their underlying approaches to time were based on traditional clock time. There does appear to be a difference in learners’ experiences of time at the start of an e-learning programme as compared with when they become more established as e-learners.  In the early stages of a programme e-learners discuss and reflect on the challenges of time and this appears to help them to reconstruct their approach to time management to meet the demands of participating in a learning community.  The e-learners who completed the questionnaires welcomed the opportunity to explore and reflect on their approaches to time and identified three distinct approaches to online work – planned, opportunistic and a mixture of planned/opportunistic. The study suggests that the inclusion of time to reflect and focus on time management is a useful strategy in helping e-learners to adapt to the time challenges of this type of learning.  A questionnaire on time management may be used as a prompt in this activity.  The benefits of enabling e-learners to reflect on their time management is that it will enable them to identify and resolve their issues about time and also learn from each others’ experiences. This will then enable them to focus on the content and learning processes of their programme rather than time management challenges.

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to all the e-learners who participated in this study which was carried out as part of the MEd. Networked Collaborative Learning (now MEd E-learning) at the University of Sheffield.  Thanks are due to all the e-learners and tutors (David McConnell, Vic Lally and Nick Bowskill) who provided help, support and feedback during my research activities and also in the writing of this paper.

 

References

Allan, B., Barker, M., Fairburn, K., Freeman, M. & Sutherland, P.  (2002), High level student autonomy in a virtual learning environment, Networked learning 2002: a research-based conference on e-learning in higher education and lifelong learning. University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. 26-28 March 2002, pp. 280-288.

Adam, B. (1995) Timewatch: the social analysis of time. Cambridge, Polity.

Case, J., & Gunstone, R., (2001), ‘No Time to Think’ – Interactions Between Students’ Perceptions of Time and Approaches to Learning. Available from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001747.htm accessed on 11/09/03.

Crosta, L. (2002), The online learning environment: a personal experience of collaboration. Networked learning 2002: a research-based conference on e-learning in higher education and lifelong learning. University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. 26-28 March 2002, pp. 364-368.

Delaat, M. (2002), Network and content analysis in an online community discourse. Networked learning 2002: a research-based conference on e-learning in higher education and lifelong learning. University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. 26-28 March 2002, pp. 218-226.

Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980), Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Lally, V. & Delaat, M. (2002), Deciphering individual learning processes in virtual professional development. Networked learning 2002: a research-based conference on e-learning in higher education and lifelong learning. University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. 26-28 March 2002, pp. 210-217.

Loomis, K. D.  (2000) Learning Styles and Asynchronous Learning: Comparing the LASSI Model to Class Performance. Available on http://aln.org/alnweb/journal/Vol14_issue1/loomis.htm  accessed on 11/09/03.

McConnell, D. (2000) Implementing Computer Supported Cooperative Learning. 2nd. Ed. London, Kogan Page.

Meyer, K. A. (2003) Face-to-face versus threaded discussions: the role of time and higher-order thinking. JALN, 7 (3). Available on http://www.aln.org/publications/jaln/v7n3/v7n3_meyer.asp accessed on 16/10/03.

Morrison, M. (1996) Part time: whose time? Women’s lives and adult learning. In: Edwards, R et al. Boundaries of Adult Learning.  Routledge, London.

Schrum, L. & Hong, S. (2002) Dimensions and Strategies for Online Success: Voices from Experienced Educators. JALN, 6 (1). Available on: http://www.aln.org/alnweb/journal/vol6_issue1/ accessed on 26/08/03.

Smyth, K. & Buckner, K. (2000) Individual Approaches to Studying and the Affordances of Interacting with Networked Learning Environments. Available on http://collaborate.shef.ac.uk/nlpapers/smyth-p.htm accessed on 11/11/02.